ࡱ> %` bjbjٕ .f2]BBBB24242424\4aI5(5555c<c<c<PHRHRHRHRHRHRH$JhLvH=A<"c<==vHBB55{IHDHDHD=BR55PHHD=PHHDHD"HD55 24h?HDD|1I0aIHDMDCMHDHDM\Dxc<><,HD<$<c<c<c<vHvH,Dc<c<c<aI====!& &BBBBBB CM2: MATERIAL CHOICES Module C2 Material Choices C2.1.1. interpret information about how solid materials can differ with respect to properties such as: melting points; strength (in tension or compression); stiffness; hardness; density; propertyvalueexampleMelting pointhighSalt, diamondlowOxygen, waterstrengthHigh (in tension)Steel, High (in compression)concretelowPolyethene, waxstiffnesshighPolypropene, glasslowRubber, polythenehardnesshighdiamondlowgraphitedensityhighLead,lowwood C2.1.2. relate properties to the uses of materials such as plastics, rubbers and fibres; Material propertyusePlastic, PVCElectrical insulatorCovering for wirerubberflexibletyresnylonHigh tensile strengthropes C2.1.3. relate the effectiveness and durability of a product to the materials used to make it; paper cup average effectiveness as weak and absorbs water to become very weak so not durable steel cup effective, strong so very durable glass cup effective, breaks if dropped so moderately durable wooden cup average effectiveness as hard to dry hard to break so durable plastic cup effective as poor conductor and strong so very durable C2.1.4. interpret information about the properties of materials such as plastics, rubbers and fibres to assess the suitability of these materials for particular purposes; purposecuttingHolding liquidBearing weightLight barrierAir transportDirection findingpropertyhardNon absorbantHigh compressive strengthopaqueLow densitymagnetic C2.1.5. with respect to data from the measurement of properties of materials: uses data rather than opinion in justifying an explanation; can suggest reasons why a measurement may be inaccurate; can suggest reasons why several measurements of the same quantity may give different results; when asked to evaluate data, makes reference to its reliability (i.e. is it repeatable?); can calculate the mean of a set of repeated measurements; from a set of repeated measurements of a quantity, uses the mean as the best estimate of the true value; can explain why repeating measurements leads to a better estimate of the quantity; can make a sensible suggestion about the range within which the true value of a measured quantity probably lies; can justify the claim that there is/is not a  real difference between two measurements of the same quantity; can identify any outliers in a set of data, and give reasons for including or discarding them; can identify, in a plan for an investigation of the effect of a factor on an outcome, the fact that other factors are controlled as a positive feature, or the fact that they are not as a design flaw; can explain why it is necessary to control all factors thought likely to affect the outcome other than the one being investigated. More people die are killed by snake bites than by sharks. Sharks are more dangerous than snakes. (not supported by evidence) Snakes are more dangerous than sharks. (supported by evidence) Reasons for inaccurate measurements instrument scale read wrongly, faulty measuring instrument, instrument in wrong place high accuracy 0.01s , low accuracy 1s Different results for the same quantity recording mistake, small changes in quantity e.g. temperature, time = 2.3s, 2.5s, 2.1s Reliable data reliable - many similar repeated readings: 2.4s, 2.4s, 2.5s, 2.4s, 2.4s 2.5s unreliable - few very different readings: 2.1s, 3.6s Calculating mean add up data and divide by the number of data items. 2m, 4m, 3m. mean =(2+4+3)/3 = 3m best estimate of true value use the mean best estimate and repeat results A mean of repeated results is more reliable as it allows for mistakes in single readings. Range The best estimate of the value for 2m, 4m, 3m lies in the range 2m - 4m. Real difference between two quantities  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Outliers 2.4s, 2.4s, 2.5s, 4.5s, 2.4s, 2.4s 2.5s outlier is 4.5s as so different from rest. Calculate mean without 4.5s. Controlling factors in experiments Someone looks at the effect of exercise on heart rate. They measure the length of a run and the heart rate. experiment 1experiment 2factor 1 ground slopeup or downall run on flatfactor 2 person runningtwo different peoplesame personfactor 3 footweartrainers or shoestrainers onlylevel of factor controlno control - design flawgood control -positive featureExplaining control of factors Controlling all factors save the one you change and the one you measure gives a fair test. If not controlled factors 1,2 and 3 might affect heart rate and be confused with the effect of exercise. C2.2.1. recall that the materials we use are chemicals or mixtures of chemicals, and state examples; natural gas, pure chemical called methane CH4 used as a fuel, petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons used as a fuel, ethene is a pure chemical used to make ployethene, C2.2.2. recall that materials can be obtained or made from living things, and give examples such as cotton, paper, silk and wool; Cotton from cotton plants is used as a fibre for clothing. Paper made from wood. Silk made from the cocoons of silk moths is used as a fibre for clothing. Wool from sheep is used as a fibre for clothing. C2.2.3. understand that there are synthetic materials which are alternatives to materials from living things; Silk can be replaced by the artificial fibre nylon. Paper in bags can be replaced by the synthetic material polyethene. Cotton in shirts can be replaced by the synthetic material polyester. Wool in carpets can be replaced by the synthetic material acrylic. C2.2.4. interpret representations of rearrangements of atoms during a chemical reaction;  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.drbateman.net/21stcentury/ModuleC2/sumC2.1.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen rearrange in the combustion reaction. C2.2.5. understand that during the course of a chemical reaction the numbers of atoms of each element must be the same in the products as in the reactants; In the example above there in 1 C atom on the left and 1 on the right. There are 4 H atoms on the left and the right. There are 4 O atoms on the left and right. No atoms are created or destroyed, just rearranged. C2.2.6. recall that crude oil consists mainly of hydrocarbons which are chain molecules of varying lengths made from carbon and hydrogen atoms only; Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons, i.e. compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. The carbon chain length of compounds in the mixture varies. e.g. propane: CH3CH2CH3 octane: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 C2.2.7. recall that only a small percentage of crude oil is used for chemical synthesis; Only 4% of crude oil is used as a raw material to make other chemicals (synthesis) e.g. polyethene. C2.2.8. recall that the petrochemical industry refines crude oil to produce fuels, lubricants and the raw materials for chemical synthesis; Most crude oil is used to make fuels such as petrol for cars, diesel for lorries and kerosene for aircraft. Some large molecules in the crude oil are used to make lubricants like motor oil. C2.2.9. understand that some small molecules can join together to make very long molecules called polymers and that the process is called polymerisation; In this chemical reaction small molecules called monomers e.g. ethene join together to make vary large molecules called polymers e.g. polyethene. C2.2.10 understand that by using polymerisation, a wide range of materials may be produced; Crude oil contains hundreds of compounds but many more useful and valuable ones can be made from them by polymerisation. E.g. polyethene, PVC, polypropene, polystyrene and nylon. C2.2.11. recall an example of a material that has replaced an older material because of its superior properties. PVC replaces wood in window frames because PVC does not rot. Polyethene replaces paper in carrier bags because polyethene does not absorb water and weaken. Polystyrene replaces glass in cheap cups because polystyrene is not brittle so does not shatter easily. C2.3.1. understand how the properties of solid materials depend on how the particles they are made from are arranged and held together; Polymers are made from molecules. The molecules contain atoms held together by strong chemical bonds. C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- It is hard to decompose these molecules. Between the molecules there are weak bonds C-C-C ------- C-C-C. C2.3.2. relate the strength of the forces between the particles to the amount of energy needed for them to break out of the solid structure, and to the temperature at which the solid melts; Strong bonds need a lot of energy to break. This energy can only be provided at high temperatures. So polymers with strong bonds between molecules have higher melting points than those with weaker bonds between molecules. The longer the polymer molecule the stronger the bonds between molecules. C2.3.3. understand how modifications in polymers produce changes to their properties (see C2.1), to include modifications such as: increased chain length; cross-linking; the use of plasticizers; increased crystallinity. Short chain length eg candle wax (20 carbon atoms) - weak/brittle Long carbon chain length e.g. polyethene (10000 carbon atoms) - strong No cross-links between chains e.g. natural rubber - soft Crosslinks between chains e.g. sulfur in vulcanised rubber - hard Unplasticised (no separate molecules between chains) e.g. uPVC - hard Plasticised (separate molecules between chains) e.g. PVC -soft High crystallinity (molecules lined up) hdpe - higher mp Low crystallinity (branched molecules ) ldpe - lower mp C2.4.1. recall the key features of a life cycle assessment (LCA) including: the main requirements for energy input; the environmental impact and sustainability of making the material from natural resources; the environmental impact of making the product from the material; the environmental impact of using the product; the environmental impact of disposing of the product by incineration, landfill or recycling; For a newspaper energy is needed to cut trees, transport wood, pulp wood to make paper, transport paper, run an office for writing the paper, printing the newspaper, delivering the newspaper. 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Plastic coffee cups: Do people like them?(non-science) Are they good at keeping coffee hot?(science) Selling electric cars: Asthma sufferers will be helped as less exhaust in air. These cars are more expensive that others so few can afford them. Fishing: Catching only large fish from big populations allows enough fish to breed to sustain the population. National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE): NICE has standards that all drugs must meet before they can be sold. Eg. It must work, and not cause bad side effects. Heart transplants: a heart could be replaced by one which is mechanical, human or from a pig; ethical and medical safety issues must be considered. DDT: This is banned as an insecticide in the UK as it damages animals up the food chain. It is not banned in some counties as it kills mosquitoes that cause malaria- a significant cause of death. 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